What Is The Gettier Problem?

What Is The Gettier Problem?The Tri sectionite Theory of noesis, a hypothesis which goes back as far as Plato, states that in order for cardinal to possess familiarity, wizard must have reassert unfeigned spirit. In other words, if you carry a impression, that belief must be received and you must be able to justify it. The Tri factorite Theory exists to allow a response to the question of what exactly familiarity is. Whilst the guess office have been widely accepted in the past, it was in 1963 that an epistemological meditate on the topic ensued. Edmund Gettiers three-page penning Is Justified True Belief Knowledge? shows dickens conditions where the criteria for justified truthful belief appear to be met exactly mostly due to luck rather than knowledge. Whilst these believeer- causes have led to a number of attempted answers, my opinion is that the Gettier chore assnot be re exercised. Alvin Goldman attempted to solve the Gettier caper with a system of caus ative confederacy which states that justified true belief must be achieved through a causative connection to the truth. In this essay, I will cozy up the shipway in which Goldmans proposed solution falls short and so fails to solve the Gettier problem and thus constitute angiotensin-converting enzyme way in which the Gettier problem fagnot be resolved.The Gettier problem basically demonstrates the problem of luck in the Tripartite Theory and thus shows how justified true belief doesnt necessarily mean knowledge. I will puzzle this through the following Gettier-style example Susie walks past the same clock customary on her way to class at 2pm. Today, as she walks past, the clock pastce says 2pm and she has no reason to believe otherwise since the clock is well maintain and has always been right in the past. Susie has justified true belief. However, unbeknownst to Susie, the clock stopped 12 hours earlier at 2am. So whilst Susie believes the clock reads 2pm, it very rea ds 2am. Thus, the circumstance that the clock stopped at the time it did is purely stamp come to the fore to luck. So Susies belief fails to be knowledge. If knowledge were to be gained via a causative connection, the problem of luck would essentially not exist as the actor would have acquired knowledge through a reliable, cognitive process. The purpose of the causal possibility is to reinforce the Tripartite Theory nevertheless with the addition of a clause that states that a causal strand amidst beliefs and truths is required for knowledge. Goldman argues that detection is one much(prenominal) mechanism that can allow a causal connection and thus justify ones true beliefs. He states in his 1967 physical composition A Causal Theory of Knowing Perhaps the simplest case of a causal concatenation connecting virtually fact p with someones belief of p is that of perception (Goldman 358). Goldman uses the example of the vase to reinforce his argument about perception which is gravel forth as follows S sees a vase that that vase is actually beingnessness hidden by a laser photograph of a vase. Because of the photograph, S believes that in that respect is a vase in front of him. Goldman argues that in actual fact, S does not unfeignedly see the vase because of the lack of causal connection that exists between Ss belief and the real vase. So ultimately, what Goldman is saying is that knowledge acquired by plentitude requires some split of causal connection for it to truly be knowledge. And so the Gettier problem is essentially resolved, according to Goldman, with the addition of the causal connection clause.Goldman continues his paper by discussing knowledge base on reposition. Memory can be considered a causal process because a current belief could be caused and therefore traced back to an earlier cause. Knowing a fact at one time and then knowing it again at some other is not necessarily knowledge based on memory as a causal connection would h ave to be complicated as an essential component in memory. Like perception, the causal connection of memory is used by Goldman to solve the Gettier problem through the addition of an senseless element in the Tripartite Theory. Goldman goes on further to discuss knowledge based on inference through the lava case. S finds lava on the countryside and infers that there was an gonorrhea. But in actual fact, someone has placed lava there in order to discombobulate it look like there had been a real eruption, unaw are of the actual volcano. Goldman states that S doesnt really know that there was an eruption because it is not causally connected to any beliefs about there being an eruption. So, inferential knowledge requires a connection through some sort of causal chain or as Goldman attri plainlyes it when someone bases his belief of one proposition on his belief of a set of other propositions, then his belief of the latter propositions can be considered a cause of his belief of the f ormer proposition. (Goldman 362).Whilst Goldmans A Causal Theory of Knowing is a excite essay on the subject of knowledge, his argument or rather alleged(prenominal) solution to the Gettier problem in my opinion is ultimately flawed. One such criticism lies in the argument that our senses could so easily deceive us and therefore can a causal connection based on perception really be used to prove the acquirement of knowledge? The answer is surely no and this can be seen in the group B faade example, in which an component drives through a town fill with fake barns. Standing in front of one of these fake barns, the agent can say that he has justified true belief through perception. Even though there is a causal connection in this example, the agent does not really have knowledge. So false conclusions can be drawn from a process which, according to Goldman would ordinarily resurrect true beliefs highlighting the fact that Goldmans theory is flawed. So this does not bear a solution to the Gettier problem.Another problem with Goldmans theory lies in the fact that not everything in the world can have a causal connection. In particular, knowledge that is a priori such as 2 + 2 = 4 seems to be a fact about numbers except it doesnt have a causal effect. It is a truth that you know based on no causal connection just like some an(prenominal) series of numbers are. So it is possible to say that the problem with Goldmans theory here is that it focuses on a posteriori knowledge but seems to ignore a priori knowledge and thus is too restrictive. It can therefore not be a solution to the Gettier problem because it doesnt take all types of knowledge into account, which is spanking in epistemology. So again, the Gettier problem remains unresolved.The problem of untimely reconstructive memory is one that further weakens Goldmans theory. There are times when one may have a true belief but the causal chain which allowed them to have that knowledge is incorrect. For examp le, an agent disc everyplaces his best paladins body and believes that he is defunct due to the fact that he is missing body parts. The agent assumes that the friend died by decapitation but actually, he was poisoned and decapitated following his death. This doesnt count as knowledge due to the false nature of the causal chain. Kenneth coal miner in his 1973 essay Contra the Causal Theory of Knowing finds a counter-example to Goldmans theory which indicates no causal chain. Collier uses the example of an agent on a hallucinogenic drug which highlights the fact that any beliefs the subject has which turn out to be true, cannot be explained causally due to the hallucinogenic state that they are in. In the paper, Collier has given Smith the hallucinogenic drug and he hallucinates that his wife is having an affair. In actual fact, his wife is having an affair but can this count as knowledge? Surely this is just an example of incorrect reconstruction due to the hallucinations or an ex ample of no causal chain at all. Collier argues that the difficulty here seems to be that it is possible for Smiths belief that p to be caused by the fact that p in ways that are irrelevant to his knowledge. But this means that the causal connection cannot be a sufficient condition for knowledge. (Collier 351)Ultimately, Goldmans causal theory attempts to resolve the Gettier problem by adding an extra clause which states that true belief has to be a result of a causal chain. He uses examples of perception, memory and inference to highlight the ways in which causality can solve the Gettier problem. But his theory is flawed overall due to the unreliability of the senses, a lack of a focus on a priori knowledge and the problem of incorrect reconstruction. I chose to focus on Goldmans theory but it is just one example out of a large number of attempts to resolve the Gettier problem. Other proposed solutions include eliminating conditions such as luck, defeat and false evidence as put fo rth by philosophers like Unger, Lehrer and Lycan. These proposed solutions, like the causal connection theory are all flawed and thus do not support an adequate response to the Gettier problem. Therefore, I do not believe that the Gettier problem can be resolved due to my agreement that justified true belief does not necessarily imply knowledge.The beer sedulousness Literature and definitionsThe beer constancy Literature and definitionsBackground and objective of the topicThe beer effort has been close to for many centuries and has always impacted national economies. Countries, such as the United terra firma (UK) and the United States (US), have had a capricious relationship with the beer industry over the last few centuries. Indeed, these countries see the benefit for the economy, from tax gross increases to muse creation, but other regulatory and social costs challenge firms inside the industry. Furthermore indoors each brewery, their merchandising, advertising and leaf b ladeing strategies are the leash differences amongst the competitors. In oversaturated, competitory markets of the UK and the US, various breweries are able to maintain advantageousness even as beer consumption and national incomes are in the decline. Indeed, with social-economic trends zoftig against the industry, companies are still profitable, but those profits are fading. Through these declines, firms make radical business choices of mergers or acquisitions in order to dominate the brewery industry.The brewery industry with a $40 (24.4) cardinal market regard as is an important part of the UK economy, and with a $79 billion market value is an important part of the US economy. In the UK, the brewery industry provides 600,000 direct jobs and 500,000 indirect jobs which generates $45 (28) billion in economic activity and $133 (81.3) million in tax revenue for 2008. In the US, the industry provides 1.9 million jobs in which $62 billion was generated in wages and benefits and $ 41 billion in business, personal and consumption taxes for 2008. In the UK, the leading brewery market plowshare is Scottish Newcastle at 27.1%, Molson brewing beau monde at 19.7% and Anheuser-Busch InBev at 17.7%. While in the leading brewery market share in the US is Anheuser-Busch InBev at 50.8%, followed by SABMiller at 18.4% and Molson Coors brew community at 10.6%. selling, advertisement and branding strategies are key elements indoors the beer industry. The beer industry includes the brewers and breweries, distributors, and suppliers and retailers. As markets become more crowded, competitive and complex, the value of a bring in brand increases. A brand can identify one particular proposition or a family of items and is delimitate as a name, term, design, symbol that identifies one sellers good or services as distinct from other sellers. An announce brand is a brand that is owned by an organization and is a consumer product. Marketing is an organizational function and a set of processes for creating, communicating and delivering value to customers that benefit the organization. Advertising is the placement of messages in time or length in any of the mass media to persuade members of a particular targeted audience. (American Marketing Association, 2009)A magnateful brand gives a company a character of its own which transcends its components. These components can be seen in both the American create from raw material industry and the British brewing industry. A brand emphasizes emotion and awareness, but it also connects with consumers to create a strong loyalty base. Fads come and go, but name brands last generations. The brewery industry is very complex in both horizontal and vertical business activities.There are emerging literary productionss that specifically relate to the brewery industry where various theories involve the marketing, price and competition shot of the industry overall. Marketing beer involves the four Ps which is the prod uct, in this case the brand name. The price, which includes the total cost to manufacture, distribute and advertise the beer. The place is the dispersion of the beer from the store to the consumer with varies steps in between. And finally, the promotion of the beer is through various characteristics of a marketing plan where advertising is included.Research incertitudesThe main subject studied in this academic style dissertation is the effects of branding and marketing indoors the American and British brewery industry as well as the power to achieve profitability. The specific research questions are designedTo understand and comparing the brand drivers of the beer industry in the US and the UKTo evaluate the distribution bringTo better understand the governments roleTo find out how the leading firms within the UK and US industry are profitable within a competitive market dealing with the current economic downturnResearch Question 1 How does the US and UK brewing industry imple ment their branding indistinguishability?Research Question 2 How will social-economic trends affect the profitability of the US and UK brewing industry?These questions will provide an understanding of firm characteristics within the industry and their business practices as well as the relative success of the leading firms.Terms used within the industry are defined as follows from the Dictionary of Beer (2001)Ale a type of beer fermented with top-fermenting ale barmBar a barroomlic room within a pubBarrelage agreement a common method for a brewery to tie up a scanty pub in return for a cheap loanBeer the generic wine term for a non-distilled cloudburst beverageic drink produced by fermentation of a wort derived from mashed malted barley grainBeer orders UK government regulations concerning licensing laws and consumer choice in pubs vitriolic beer highly hopped ales with an aftertaste associated with hops, malt and yeastBottom fermentation fermentation at 10C where yeast cells s ink to the bottom of the vesselBrew pub a pub which brews beer on the premises and serves foodBrewery a place where beer or ale is brewedBrew house the area of a brewery where the beer is mashed and brewedBrewing process the process of making wort, boiling it with hops and fermenting it into beer barrel the general name for any of the barrel-shaped containers of various sizes used for traditional muster in beerDraught a general term for any drink that is mete out from a bulk container into smaller measures for saleFermentation biochemical reception when sugar is converted to ethyl alcohol by yeast and some bacteriaFree house a pub supposedly allay of any brewery tie and able to offer a range of beers from incompatible breweriesGuest beer a beer, not regularly sold in a pub, being on offer for a limited period lager beer beer fermented with bottom fermentation yeast where primary fermentation is at a lower temperature than for ale and secondary fermentation happens in closed co nditioning tanks around 0C.Light beer any American low-calories beer which does not contain dextrin and alcohol content ranges between 2.8 to 4%Microbrewery small-scale brewery operation where equipment has been specially essential for brew pubs and small independent breweries and produces a limited amount of beerMacrobrewery a large brewery produces larger amounts of beer at a cheaper priceOff-trade (or off-license) where places like a supermarket or convenience store are licensed to sell alcoholic beverages for consumption off of the premisesOn-trade (or on-license) an establishment where alcohol must be consumed at the point of sale such as the pub or barPremium lager a lager brewed above 5% alcohol strengthPorter a disastrous, slightly sweetish but hoppy ale made with roasted barleyPub a house absolved to the public at stated times for the purpose of social imbibitionStandard lager a lager brewed under 5% alcohol strengthStout a very dark, heavy, well-hopped bitter ale with a dry out palate, thick creamy stage, and good grainy taste from a dark roasted barleyThree tier distribution (NBWA) the US distribution system for the beer industry where brewers make the beer, wholesalers distribute it to supermarkets and bars, and retailers sell it, but no one within the line is allowed to do one of the other two at the same timeTied house a pub which is obliged to sell only the products of a particular breweryTop-fermentation fermentation where the yeast rises to the top of the vessel in a thick foamy headWort the sweet liquid, containing all the extracts from the malted grain, which subsequently will be fermented into beer modellingThe framework for the dissertation is as follows with this chapter presenting the overview for the present study. In the next chapter the methodological analysis is described in greater detail. In Chapter Three, a review of the literature relating to industry concentration, advertising, competition and demand is presented. Chapter Four will consist of semiempirical materials of primary and secondary data on the leading macrobreweries within the US and the UK as well as results of semi-structured interviews comprised of people working within the industry. Chapter volt conveys the analysis and findings developed throughout the research. The final chapter presents the conclusions and recommendations for further areas of research.